Maureen A. Duffy, Editorial Director maureen.duffy@visionaware.org [3]
IN THIS ISSUE....
Greetings VisionAWARE readers and welcome to our Special Issue on Orientation and Mobility prepared by our guest author Dona Sauerburger, M.A., COMS®, Orientation and Mobility Specialist [18]. Dona is a Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, and provides itinerant orientation and mobility services to blind and visually impaired adults and teenagers in Maryland and suburban Washington, DC. She earned a Master's degree specializing in Orientation and Mobility (O&M) from Western Michigan University and has a special interest in working with people who are deaf-blind.
Her book, Independence Without Sight or Sound: Suggestions for Practitioners Working with Deaf-Blind Adults, published by the American Foundation for the Blind, received the C. Warren Bledsoe Publication Award. You can learn more about her book, including ordering information, at the VisionAWARE Bookstore [19]. She is also the recipient of the prestigious Lawrence Blaha Award for outstanding contributions to the field of Orientation and Mobility.
This Special Issue of the Are You AWARE? newsletter addresses safe, efficient, and effective travel skills for people who are blind or have low vision, also called orientation and mobility (O&M).
Many of our friends and colleagues outside the field of vision rehabilitation do not know what ‘orientation and mobility’ is, nor what an O&M Specialist does. This special issue on orientation and mobility will hopefully provide you with an understanding of the importance of orientation and mobility in enhancing quality of life and personal independence – for all who live with vision loss.
To locate an Orientation and Mobility Specialist in your home area, see our state-by-state listing of vision rehabilitation services [20], which includes information about Orientation and Mobility instruction.
If you have questions or experiences to share on this topic, or if you found this special issue newsletter informative, we would very much like to hear from you. From the VisionAWARE team we send best wishes for a happy, healthy, safe, and fun summer. Anne Yeadon, President, AWARE anne.yeadon@visionaware.org [21]
“I am an occupational therapist. I just started working at a center that provides services and classes for adults with vision loss. We recently updated our Life Skills program, and I am in the process of developing adaptive recreation-based classes. I just wanted to thank you for your wonderful web site. It has been a great resource for me in getting ideas for adaptive classes that we might want to try.” ~ Rose Visser, OTR, Life Skills Therapist, Badger Association of the Blind and Visually Impaired, Inc. [26]
“I am ever so grateful for this information! I am very glad that there are so many aids now for the various concerns AND that your web site has SO much information. I will be sharing it with friends who have various concerns. Again, many thanks for your work on behalf of people who are blind!” ~ L. L., Anchorage, Alaska
Dona Sauerburger, M.A., COMS
Dona is a Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist, and provides itinerant orientation and mobility services to blind and visually impaired adults and teenagers in Maryland and suburban Washington, DC. She earned a Master's degree specializing in Orientation and Mobility (O&M) from Western Michigan University and has a special interest in working with people who are deaf-blind.
Her book, Independence Without Sight or Sound: Suggestions for Practitioners Working with Deaf-Blind Adults, published by the American Foundation for the Blind, received the C. Warren Bledsoe Publication Award. You can learn more about her book, including ordering information, at the VisionAWARE Bookstore [19]. She is also the recipient of the prestigious Lawrence Blaha Award for outstanding contributions to the field of Orientation and Mobility.
Orientation and Mobility (O&M) is a profession specific to blindness and low vision that teaches safe, efficient, and effective travel skills to people of all ages:
An Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Specialist provides instruction that can help you develop or relearn the skills and concepts you need to travel safely and independently within your home and in the community. O&M Specialists provide services across the life span, teaching infants and children in pre-school and school programs, as well as adults in a variety of community-based and rehabilitation settings.
The Academy for Certification of Vision Rehabilitation and Education Professionals [27] (ACVREP) offers certification for vision rehabilitation professionals [28], including O&M Specialists. A Certified Orientation and Mobility Specialist (COMS) must adhere to a professional Code of Ethics and demonstrate knowledge and teaching skills in areas such as the following:
If you are an adult who is blind or has low vision, you may have experienced several – or all – of the following O&M problems and concerns:
An O&M Specialist can work with you to plan an individualized program of instruction that reflects your personal needs, skills, and goals, which can include any or all of the following goals:
O&M instruction is usually conducted on a one-to-one basis, and can take place either in the community where you live and/or work (called “itinerant O&M”) or at a rehabilitation center (called “center-based O&M”).
To locate an Orientation and Mobility Specialist in your home area, see VisionAWARE's state-by-state listing of vision rehabilitation services [20], which includes information about Orientation and Mobility instruction.
You can read more about O&M Specialists and O&M instruction at the Orientation and Mobility Division web site of the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired [32].
The profession of Orientation and Mobility began to develop during and immediately after World War II, when soldiers who had been blinded in battle were sent to recuperate at Valley Forge Army General Hospital before entering Avon Old Farms Convalescent Hospital, the U.S. Army’s former experimental rehabilitation center for blind soldiers in Avon, CT.
In order to better serve the large number of blind soldiers who required special training and services, the military recruited Richard E. Hoover [33], an army sergeant, who was assigned to the center for the treatment of blinded soldiers at Valley Forge Army Hospital in 1944. During the same year, Russell Williams [34], who was blinded by enemy action in France, received medical rehabilitation at the Valley Forge Army Hospital, and in 1947, C. Warren Bledsoe [35] joined the Hospital. Both Hoover and Bledsoe had previously worked at the Maryland School for the Blind. These three men made significant contributions to the development of a new profession: Orientation and Mobility (O&M).
The blinded soldiers were highly motivated to be successful, and Richard Hoover believed that the traditional strategies taught and used to travel independently were inadequate. In response, he developed a technique for using a cane that is lightweight and longer than support canes. This technique and cane revolutionized independent travel for blind people and are still used today.
To learn more about the development of the orientation and mobility profession, see Orientation and Mobility Living History: Where Did Our O&M Techniques Come From? [36]
To learn more about the U.S. Army’s former rehabilitation program at Avon Old Farms Convalescent Hospital, see Old Farms Reflections [37] at the Blinded Veterans Association [38] web site.
If you've had vision throughout your life, you've probably used it to obtain most or all the information you need to get around. Now that you have a vision loss, however, you may wonder how you can accomplish the things you used to do by looking, such as
All of these tasks can be done safely and efficiently by using what is called “non-visual information.” Using non-visual information means using your other senses, such as hearing, touch, smell, and the perception of your body’s position and movement. You can use information from these senses to determine where you are and what is happening around you. Some examples of using non-visual information are as follows:
Everyday sounds can provide many clues about your surroundings, including:
O&M instruction can teach you to:
For more information about hearing, see Maximize Your Sense of Hearing [40] and All About Hearing and Hearing Loss [41].
The sense of touch can provide many clues about your surroundings, including:
O&M instruction can teach you to:
For more information about the sense of touch, see Maximize Your Sense of Touch [42].
The sense of smell can provide some clues about your surroundings, including:
O&M instruction can teach you to:
For more information about the sense of smell, see Maximize Your Sense of Smell [43].
Kinesthesia refers to the awareness of your body’s movement and position, for example when you bend, reach for a door handle, walk, or turn around.
Kinesthesia can provide many clues about your surroundings, including:
O&M instruction can teach you to:
If you’ve had vision for most of your life, you’ll probably tend to trust and rely upon visual information. If you lose some of that vision, you may often still try to rely on it and ignore helpful non-visual information [29], such as touch and sounds. You may believe your eyes, even when your vision is unreliable or misleading, instead of using non-visual information which is more accurate and helpful.
When your eyes tell you one thing, but a sound, a touch, or your own position or movement tells you another, which do you believe?
Here are some examples:
1. When walking with someone using the human guide technique [44], if your eyes are telling you the ground looks smooth and unbroken as far you can see:
Would you notice or observe:
If you do notice, which will you believe?
or
2. When walking toward a corner that you know has a stop sign, if your eyes are telling you that the sidewalk looks as if it makes a sharp turn to the right, which implies that you’ve reached the corner:
Would you notice or observe:
If you do notice, which will you believe?
or
As you gain experience during O&M instruction, you will begin to notice and use more and more non-visual information, which can help you learn to verify (or disregard!) the incomplete or inaccurate information you may be receiving visually.
Some of the ways this can be taught are:
Strategy #1: Your orientation and mobility instructor points out or asks you to notice non-visual information as you walk together:
Strategy #2: Under the guidance of an orientation and mobility specialist, you wear a blindfold or close your eyes:
Strategy #3: Under the guidance of an orientation and mobility specialist, you cover the lower portion of your eyeglass lenses so that you’re unable to see what is on the ground in front of you:
For more information about these techniques, see The Use of Visual Occlusion in Orientation and Mobility Instruction [45] at the Orientation and Mobility Division web site of the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired [32].
For more information about O&M training in non-visual skills and techniques, see Examples of Strategies for Teaching Non-Visual Skills [46].
People who have a hearing loss as well as a visual impairment – and people who are profoundly deaf and totally blind – can travel in their communities, commute to work, and even travel around the world independently.
A primary orientation and mobility (O&M) challenge for individuals who cannot hear or see well is learning to communicate effectively with people who can provide help or information, such as store personnel, bus drivers, police, and pedestrians.
During O&M training, you can learn which communication strategies will work for you and have the opportunity to practice a variety of communication techniques while your O&M instructor observes and provides feedback.
One useful communication technique is to use a card with a message written on it. For example, to communicate the need to get across a street, you can use a street-crossing card:
A street-crossing card for deaf-blind individuals (credit: Dona Sauerburger and Gene Bourquin)
For more information about communication and alternatives to street-crossing for people who are blind or have low vision in addition to a hearing loss, see Teaching Deaf-Blind People to Communicate and Interact with the Public [48] and Getting Across the Street with Visual and Hearing Impairments [49].
Many newer digital hearing aids are programmed to magnify speech and eliminate background noise, which can make it more difficult to identify and localize traffic sounds and other environmental “orientation clues.”
If you wear hearing aids, it’s important to let your audiologist know that you need to hear a wider range of environmental sounds, such as traffic noise. Once your audiologist is aware of your O&M needs, he or she can program your digital hearing aids so that you can identify and localize these important environmental sounds more accurately.
For more information about hearing and hearing aids, see About Hearing and Hearing Loss [41] and About Hearing Aids [50].
Hold the guide's arm just above the elbow, similar to the way you hold a cup (credit: Dona Sauerburger)
There may be times when you find that it is faster and easier to get somewhere by walking with another person who will act as a “guide.” The following tips can be helpful if you use a guide to help you walk to your mailbox, visit a neighbor, or shop in a mall or grocery store:
The correct position: half a step behind the guide (credit: Dona Sauerburger)
For additional information about self-protective mobility techniques, see Learn To Move Safely Within Your Home [30], Lower Body Protective Technique [51], Upper Body Protective Technique [52], Trailing Technique [53], and Finding a Dropped Object [54].
If you are embarrassed to be seen with a cane, consider what your own reaction might be if you saw someone else walking with a cane or a guide dog.
When I’ve asked other people with low vision about their reactions to people who are traveling with a cane, they often say that the person with the white cane must have a lot of courage and savvy to get around when he or she can’t see well. Many people also say that they would probably offer to help the person who is using a cane. When people stop to think about their own feelings about blindness, many are no longer embarrassed about being seen with a white cane.
You may also worry about being watched or stared at when you walk with a cane. To address this concern, I often observe people’s reactions and behavior when they pass an individual who is carrying a cane; sometimes I’ll even ask about their personal reactions to blindness.
I have learned that very few people even glance at the person using a cane. When I talk with people passing by, they often express admiration for the courage and competence of the person who is using the cane and wondered how they managed.
Some people who have low vision worry that if they carry a white cane, people will think they are “cheating” and that only people who are totally blind can use a white cane. Although this is a common belief, the fact is that the majority of people with vision problems (including those who use a white cane) have some remaining useful vision. The American Foundation for the Blind estimates that 85% of all individuals with eye disorders have some remaining sight; only about 15% are totally blind. You can learn more about the definitions of legal blindness and low vision at Low Vision Terms [55].
“White cane laws” in the United States prohibit people from carrying a white cane unless they have a visual impairment. In Maryland, for example, only people who are “blind or partially blind” can carry a white cane, and in New York, it is people who are “blind or visually impaired.” This means that if you have a visual impairment or are “partially blind,” even if you are not totally blind, you are permitted to carry a white cane.
Many people who live or travel in high-risk communities worry that carrying a white cane will make them more vulnerable to attack. At present, there is no research indicating that people with white canes are more vulnerable or likely to be targets for muggers.
However, it is often said that people seem less vulnerable when they appear confident and assertive. If that is true, then a person with a white cane who is walking quickly – and with confidence – may appear less vulnerable than a person who is not using a cane and is walking tentatively with his or her head down, trying to see the ground, perhaps tripping and stumbling on uneven pavement.
For more information about coping with vision loss, see Coping with Your Emotions When You lose Your Vision [56].
When used properly, a cane can provide information and protection regardless of its color – it does not have to be white to be effective. Most canes used by blind people are white, but they are also available in red, black, yellow, and blue.
Canes from AmbuTech are now available in several colors (credit: AmbuTech [57])
The blind character portrayed by Al Pacino in the film “Scent of a Woman” inspired the development of AmbuTech’s solid black cane.
However, only a white cane identifies the user as a person who is blind or has low vision. This can be an important consideration when crossing streets and requesting information from store clerks, bus drivers, and the general public. It’s likely that people will be more willing to help if they realize you’re asking for information because you are blind or have low vision.
Many people are under the impression that each state’s White Cane Law contains a provision that requires drivers to stop for, and/or yield to, pedestrians who are carrying white canes. This is not correct. The laws in each state vary widely and drivers do not always reliably stop for pedestrians who carry white canes.
When drivers see pedestrians who are carrying white canes:
Check your state’s White Cane Law to determine the language that describes driver and pedestrian rights and responsibilities.
For more information about the history of White Cane Laws in the United States, see History of White Cane Safety Day [58] at the American Council of the Blind [59] web site.
One type of support cane (credit: Wikipedia)
Over the centuries, from the first time someone fashioned a twig into a cane or pole, people have developed a wide variety of canes to aid with walking. Today, in addition to walking sticks and ski poles, two types of canes are commonly used:
One type of "probing" cane (credit: Wikipedia)
A support cane and a probing cane are designed differently and serve very different purposes, so the choice of which cane to use will depend on your needs:
Using a support cane and a probing cane for outdoor travel (credit: Dona Sauerburger)
Cane tips from AmbuTech are now available in a wide variety of styles and functions (credit: AmbuTech [57])
The Bundu Basher cane tip for wilderness travel (credit: Dona Sauerburger)
Rural travel with the Bundu Basher cane tip and a support cane (credit: Moira Higgerty)
Outdoor travel with an alternative mobility device: See article above (credit: Dona Sauerburger)
When used correctly, the cane searches the ground ahead of each step. It warns you of obstacles and drop-offs and informs you of what’s in front of you. The correct cane technique, which will provide maximum protection and information, is as follows:
Although the correct cane technique can easily be demonstrated to you by anyone familiar with the technique, it will not provide you with effective protection until you’ve reached the third or fourth stage of learning. This can be achieved with sufficient training from a Certified Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Specialist.
Stage 1 – Beginning to learn: In this stage, you are just beginning to understand how to move and use the cane, and you will need prompting from your O&M instructor to maintain the recommended technique.
Stage 2 – Concentration required: In this stage, you can move the cane correctly but only when concentrating on your technique. If you are distracted with anything, such as a question, another task, or being lost in thought, your cane technique will deteriorate and not provide full coverage and safety.
Stage 3 – The cane moves correctly without concentration: In this stage, the cane has become a natural part of you and you can move it correctly even when you are distracted. At this stage, the cane will provide you with protection and information in most circumstances.
Nevertheless, you can still trip or fall because you may continue to move forward after your cane drops down over a step or curb or makes contact with an obstacle you didn’t expect. This is more likely to occur if you have low vision.
Stage 4 – The cane reliably provides information and protection: In this stage, you have reached proficiency. You always move the cane correctly, and always notice when the cane drops over an edge or contacts an obstacle, even when
At this stage of orientation and mobility learning, the cane provides you with reliable protection in all situations!
The guide dog is another mobility aid that can help enable people who are blind or have low vision to travel safely. Guide dogs can guide people around obstacles and through crowds, stop at curbs and stairs, and sometimes can even be trained to find a limited number of objects that are within sight when given orders such as “Find the chair,” “Find the door,” or “Find the elevator.” The guide dog user can also train (or “pattern”) the dog to find frequently used landmarks, such as a bus stop pole or a mailbox.
A common misconception is that people who are blind or have low vision and don’t have orientation and mobility (O&M) travel skills can use a guide dog to travel safely and independently; people mistakenly assume that it is the dog that shows the person where to go. This is not true. The person who is blind or has low vision directs the dog; the function and purpose of the dog is to merely guide the person around obstacles and indicate the location of steps and curbs.
Another misconception is that guide dogs indicate when it is safe to cross the street. This is also not true. For example, at a traffic signal, the guide dog does not know when the light changes from green to amber to red. It is the person who determines when it is safe to cross the street and which way to go; the dog then guides the person across the street to reach the other side. Although the dog does not know when it is safe to cross the street, if it sees a car approaching too close, it has been trained to stop or attempt to move the person out of the way.
To get a dog, you must attend a special guide dog school that will assign you a dog and train you to take care of the dog and use it to guide you. All reputable dog guide schools require that applicants demonstrate that they have the skills necessary to travel independently with a cane, including walking safely and efficiently in familiar areas, crossing streets, finding destinations, and being able to problem-solve when disoriented or lost. See Guide Dogs [63] for more information about guide dog schools, organizations, and training.
www.sauerburger.org [64] — The web site of Dona Sauerburger, M.A., COMS®, Orientation And Mobility Specialist. Dona’s site includes a wide range of articles and information about Orientation and Mobility (O&M) training and services, including O&M for people who are deaf-blind; teaching cane and non-visual skills; street crossing instruction and strategies; and traffic design in some of the Asian countries she has visited.
www.wayfinding.net [65] — The mission of the Institute for Innovative Blind Navigation (IIBN) is to become a global center for the study, promotion, and development of sophisticated wayfinding technologies that have the potential for improving the efficiency and safety of travel for blind individuals. IIBN is a wayfinding think tank organized to gather consumer, public, and professional opinion, formulate proposed policies, and develop and distribute relevant information.
Academy for Certification of Vision Rehabilitation and Education Professionals [27]— Offers professional certification for vision rehabilitation and educational professionals. The Academy also provides a searchable database to locate and check the certification credentials of Low Vision Therapists, Orientation & Mobility Specialists, and Vision Rehabilitation Therapists in your home state.
American Printing House for the Blind Hall of Fame [66] — The Hall of Fame for Leaders and Legends of the Blindness Field honors, preserves, and promotes the achievements of significant practitioners who have shaped the history, philosophy, services, and knowledge of the blindness profession.
Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired (AERBVI) [67] — The only international membership organization dedicated to providing support and assistance to the professionals who work in all phases of education and rehabilitation with adults and children who are blind or have low vision. Membership is comprised of more than 4,000 professionals who provide services to people with visual impairments.
History of the White Cane [68] — Describes the history of the white cane, white cane safety laws, and national White Cane day. The National Federation of the Blind [69] designates the third week in May as “White Cane Week.”
The AER Orientation and Mobility Division Web Site [32] — The official web site of the Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Division of the Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Impaired. It is the largest and most comprehensive professional organization for O&M specialists in the world.
The White Cane [70] — This Wikipedia article describes the different types of canes, the history of the cane, controversies surrounding the cane, and provides photographs of the different cane types.
Visit the following links from VisionAWARE to learn more about eye conditions, vision-related rehabilitation services and professionals, low vision and low vision eye examinations, optical and non-optical low vision devices, and payment options for vision-related rehabilitation:
Also, be sure to visit VisionAWARE’s Question & Answer links for more information on Personal Self-Care [80], Home Management [81], Home Modifications [82], Money and Finances [83], Home Mechanics [84], Reading and Writing [85], Computers and Technology [86], Employment [87], and Recreation and Leisure [88].
You can view or download previous newsletters at Are You AWARE? Newsletter Archive [89]. Maureen Duffy, AWARE’s Editorial Director, can be reached at maureen.duffy@visionaware.org [3].
Your donation [90] can help us continue to promote self-help vision rehabilitation hints, provide step-by-step adaptive techniques, and disseminate information on services and independent living resources to adults with vision loss, their families and friends, caregivers, and related professionals.
AWARE is a 501(c)(3) non-profit social service organization.
Links:
[1] http://www.visionaware.org/publications/visionaware-AreYouAware-jul08-O&M.pdf
[2] http://www.visionaware.org/publications/visionaware-AreYouAware-jul08-O&M-LP.pdf
[3] mailto:maureen.duffy@visionaware.org
[4] http://www.visionaware.org/are_you_aware_july_2008#message
[5] http://www.visionaware.org/are_you_aware_july_2008#news
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[18] http://www.sauerburger.org/
[19] http://www.visionaware.org/books-low-vision-blind-vision-loss-vision-impairment
[20] http://www.visionaware.org/find_vision_rehabilitation_vision_services_in_your_state
[21] mailto:anne.yeadon@visionaware.org
[22] http://www.visionaware.org/starting-career-blind-low-vision
[23] http://www.visionaware.org/sports_groups
[24] http://www.visionaware.org/how_might_cataracts_affect_everyday_activities
[25] http://www.visionaware.org/my-story-tom-glaucoma
[26] http://www.visionaware.org/WI-Badger-Association-Blind
[27] http://www.visionaware.org/academy_for_certification_of_vision_rehabilitation_and_education_professionals_acvrep
[28] http://www.visionaware.org/vision_rehabilitation_services
[29] http://www.visionaware.org/all_about_maximizing_all_your_senses
[30] http://www.visionaware.org/indoor_at_home
[31] http://www.visionaware.org/are_there_recommended_ways_to_walk_with_a_sighted_guide_or_human_guide
[32] http://aerbvi.org/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=60
[33] http://www.aph.org/hall_fame/bios/hoover.html
[34] http://www.aph.org/hall_fame/bios/williams.html
[35] http://www.aph.org/hall_fame/bios/bledsoe.html
[36] http://www.sauerburger.org/dona/omhistory.htm
[37] http://www.bva.org/mj03bulletin/farms.html
[38] http://www.visionaware.org/blinded-veterans-association
[39] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_echolocation
[40] http://www.visionaware.org/exercise_maximize_your_sense_of_hearing_0
[41] http://www.visionaware.org/hearing
[42] http://www.visionaware.org/touch
[43] http://www.visionaware.org/exercise_maximize_your_sense_of_smell
[44] /http://www.visionaware.org/are_you_aware_july_2008#5
[45] http://www.aerbvi.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1035
[46] http://www.sauerburger.org/dona/nonvisual.htm
[47] http://sauerburger.org/dona/dbcard
[48] http://sauerburger.org/dona/dbcomm
[49] http://www.sauerburger.org/dona/dbcross.htm
[50] http://www.visionaware.org/are_there_special_hearing_aids_for_people_who_have_hearing_and_vision_loss
[51] http://www.visionaware.org/lower_body_protective_technique
[52] http://www.visionaware.org/how_can_i_protect_my_upper_body_from_hazards_as_i_move_around_my_home
[53] http://www.visionaware.org/trailing_technique
[54] http://www.visionaware.org/locating-dropped-objects
[55] http://www.visionaware.org/low_vision_terms
[56] http://www.visionaware.org/talking_about_your_feelings
[57] http://www.visionaware.org/ambutech
[58] http://www.acb.org/pedestrian/whitecane.html
[59] http://www.visionaware.org/american_council_of_the_blind
[60] http://www.sauerburger.org/dona/twocanes
[61] http://www.sauerburger.org/dona/bundu
[62] http://www.sauerburger.org/dona/amd.htm
[63] http://www.visionaware.org/guide_dog
[64] http://www.sauerburger.org
[65] http://www.wayfinding.net
[66] http://www.aph.org/hall_fame/about.html
[67] http://www.visionaware.org/association_for_education_and_rehabilitation_of_the_blind_and_visually_impaired
[68] http://www.nfbmass.org/white cane.htm
[69] http://www.visionaware.org/national_federation_of_the_blind
[70] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_cane
[71] http://www.visionaware.org/eye_conditions
[72] http://www.visionaware.org/sources_of_products_for_independent_living
[73] http://www.visionaware.org/find_services
[74] http://www.visionaware.org/eye_doctors
[75] http://www.visionaware.org/what_is_a_low_vision_examination
[76] http://www.visionaware.org/reading-low-vision-optical-devices
[77] http://www.visionaware.org/what_are_the_most_common_non_optical_devices
[78] http://www.visionaware.org/taxes_costs
[79] http://www.visionaware.org/support-groups-self-help
[80] http://www.visionaware.org/index.php?q=personal_self_care
[81] http://www.visionaware.org/home_management
[82] http://www.visionaware.org/home_modifications
[83] http://www.visionaware.org/financial_management
[84] http://www.visionaware.org/home_mechanics
[85] http://www.visionaware.org/reading_and_writing
[86] http://www.visionaware.org/computers_technology
[87] http://www.visionaware.org/Employment
[88] http://www.visionaware.org/recreation_leisure
[89] http://www.visionaware.org/are-you-aware-newsletter-archives
[90] http://www.nycharities.org/donate/charitydonate.asp?ID=1778
[91] http://www.visionaware.org
[92] http://www.visionaware.org/about_aware
[93] mailto:info@visionaware.org